By Dan Welch, 8th Guards Mechanized Corps

Article Copyright Dan Welch, 2001

Part Two of a Two Part Series

(Part One can be found in Volume 1 Issue 1 July 2002)

Portrayal of

Soviet Forces:

The Frontovik

Once he has eaten, he might have a smoke. Soldiers usually rolled their own cigarettes, using cheap Makhorka tobacco (the literal translation of Makhorka means "(poor) tobacco"). Rolling papers were difficult to find so the men used any sort of paper they could find - usually sheets of the regimental newspaper. Even before the war no Western style cigarettes were produced in the Soviet Union. There were only Papierossi, paper pipes half full of tobacco. These were very hard to come by during the war and it was usually only the senior officers who managed to lay their hands on them. Pravda and Red Star newspapers were typically used to roll smokes and some soldiers have claimed to prefer the smoking qualities of each over the other. Soldiers also typically tore pages out of books to roll a smoke. A lucky soldier might get hold of a little of the 987 tons of lend-lease cigarette paper that arrived in the Soviet Union. German cigarettes were a prized capture and General Katukov chain smoked them. The smell of Makhorka is always referred to in dugouts, trains, etc., and Alexander Werth mentions "that characteristically Russian blend of smells: leather boots, black bread, cabbage fumes and Makhorka tobacco."

The effect of tobacco on morale was critical and even during the blockade of Leningrad, Werth notes "the soldiers suffered severely from the Leningrad tobacco shortage and all kinds of admixtures were devised, such as hops and dried maple leaves." Desperate remedies were resorted to in order to keep the troops well supplied with tobacco, which was found to be essential for morale. Very few soldiers, it was found, would agree to exchange their tobacco even for chocolate, which was among the "concentrated" foods brought to Leningrad by air.

Even in combat soldiers found time to smoke: "When a tank came at me the first time, I was sure that that was the end of the world, honest to God. Then that tank came nearer and started burning and I thought to myself - it's the end for him, not me. You know, by the way, I rolled and smoked about 5 cigarettes during

that battle. When you're in combat it's this way: you put your gun aside and light a cigarette, when time allows. You can smoke when a battle's on, what you can't do is miss your aim. If you miss, you won't need that cig. That's the way it is." Matches were scarce, but existed in match book form as well as sticks. Lighters were common in the usual period forms, as well as being fashioned to look like items such as miniature artillery shells, etc., and often were inscribed with patriotic slogans or other personal touches. These can be found at militaria shows from time to time.

Once he has gotten his personal affairs together, perhaps he'll improve his position or that of the unit and clean weapons. Camouflage was a never ending task and the Soviets were always renewing dead foliage with fresh, concealing equipment, employing deception measures, etc. Commanders and political officers were constantly instilling the need to conceal activities and deceive the enemy as to what their own forces were doing. German accounts consistently refer to the Soviets' expertise at camouflage and their own inability to determine what the Soviets were doing tactically and operationally at every level. Often the first indication of a Soviet presence was a volley of small arms and anti-tank gun fire from a seemingly unoccupied area, accompanied by German vehicles bursting into flames. Great efforts were expended on building dummy defensive positions, assembly areas and troop and vehicle concentrations. Whenever Soviet troops stopped moving, they immediately dug in and camouflaged everything.

After he has ensured that his position and equipment maintenance has been done, he may be put on guard duty, or be ordered to participate in military or political training. Between battles, the Red Army conducted rigorous training, from squad level all the way up. This may be as basic as drills out of the manual, or as complicated as rehearsing assault group actions in destroying German strongpoints. Units would expend large quantities of ammo at live fire ranges, often using captured enemy vehicles as targets, with veteran soldiers teaching new soldiers vehicle weaknesses and the best aiming points. When teaching new soldiers, veterans were also used extensively to explain what they could expect in combat, and proven methods of carrying out tasks.

Units preparing for an operation would often be brought to an area with similar characteristics to the area where they were to conduct their mission, and they would rehearse the mission on mocked up defenses based on reconnaissance of the area they were to attack.

Political training often consisted of political and morale building activities and talks about subjects such as political training, Bolshevik agitation, news events, friendly and enemy propaganda speeches, exploits of individual soldiers and units used to inspire others, etc. Political training would be conducted by the unit political officer (commissar) or political NCO (politruk), and if the unit didn't have either of these, political training would be the responsibility of the commander, usually delegated to his deputy. The commissar himself was technically a representative of the party and the government in the army. As a further note on commissars, it is true that early in the war they exercised dual command with officers and were responsible for punishment, up to and including executions. But, from mid 1942 on, their role was modified to be more of a morale and welfare officer. During a normal day, political officers could often be found checking on the welfare of troops, helping soldiers write letters and giving tips on bettering their living conditions, etc., much like chaplains in other armies. It is interesting to note that although Stalin relaxed the official attitude toward the church during the war, no chaplains were ever attached to the Red Army.

Once the day's training activities had been completed the soldier might have some time to relax. He might receive mail from home, or he might write a letter. Envelopes were very hard to come by during the war so people folded their letters up instead. Service personnel folded their letters into triangles and these were carried free of charge. Divisional newspapers were printed on portable printing presses that moved around with the troops. Each Front, Army and Division, and sometimes even Regiment, produced its own newspaper. The national newspapers were also distributed to the Army - Pravda, Izvestia, Komsomol and Trut. There was also the Red Star, produced daily by the People's Commissariat for Defense. A quarter sheet divisional leaflet was produced every day, or when necessary.

Entertainment groups traveled from unit to unit, putting on music and dance shows, plays and skits and even movies, which sometimes included western (allied) movies and newsreel footage. Units themselves sometimes put on these shows and the troops often entertained themselves, with the musical instruments and gramophones they carried with them. Common musical instruments would be guitars, balalaikas, harmonicas, accordions, etc.

Although soldiers might not have the opportunity to bathe for months on end, Russian (Turkish) baths were one of the greatest heats imaginable for a weary and grimy soldier. Troops often built bath-houses for themselves or adapted existing buildings for that purpose. Soldiers in the Red Army were allowed 100 grams of vodka after a visit to the "Russian" baths or after heavy fighting.

Vodka, along with other alcohol, was often acquired by any means possible and like soldiers of any army, drank whenever possible. Drinking captured German stores of alcohol is referred to much more often than distribution or consumption of that issued officially. A soldier could be just as likely drinking brandy from France as anything produced locally. When awarded medals and orders there was a tradition of 'rinsing the order' - a newly awarded medal or badge would be dropped into a glass of vodka. The soldier would drink the vodka and then, without using his hands, take hold of the order between his teeth.

Although canteens were in existence, little mention is made of them and the establishment of something like an USO-type facility in the west appears to have been rare. But, the Russians are by nature a partying people, and it is safe to assume that the soldiers made the best of any situation they could find to entertain themselves.

At the end of his day he will conduct any personal maintenance required, perhaps have a smoke and contemplate the next days activities before returning to another fitful night's sleep as the war drags on into the new day.

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